Cognitive Ergonomics

Cognitive Ergonomics Introduction Cognitive ergonomics is focused on modifying processes to suit the human capability (Budnick 2001, p. 1). Ergonomics in its entirety is focused on redesigning processes to suit human meaning. This can be done through modifying equipments, tools, environments and such like elements to increase efficiency or production (Budnick 2001, p. 1).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Cognitive Ergonomics specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For example, a lifting job can be redesigned to happen at the waist level for ease of functions; or a tool can be redesigned to reduce awkward postures and instead be more comfortable for human use (Robertson 1995, p. 279). There are many other applications that employ the concept of cognitive economics and some of them include the design of software interfaces (for easy human use), the design of airplane cockpits and automobile controls to reduce human errors and the likes. The concep t of cognitive ergonomics is especially relied on when designing complex machines and hi-tech equipments because they are normally difficult to operate, thereby posing a challenge to many people, regarding how to operate them (Cohen 1997, p. 2). For example, a hi-tech mobile phone may not necessarily cause an accident but if it poses a challenge to customers regarding its operability, it may eventually turn out to be a market failure (because it will be shunned by customers). In industrial processes, the concept of cognitive ergonomics cannot be overemphasized because if a plant or equipment is poorly designed, it may consequently lead to the occurrence of errors or accidents, besides increasing the probability of reduced production or the production of low quality goods (Talty 1988, p. 702). Often, people are known to over-trust ergonomics but in other times, they are known to mistrust the concept altogether (Moray 2005, p. 546). For instance, if a ship’s system indicates th at all the valves are in working condition, but in real sense, not all of them are working as perfectly as they should, the captain may carry out subsequent procedures based on the assumption that, all the valves are in working condition.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This could lead to an accident (Shahbazian 2008, p. 165). Often, people would blame the captain for the accident, but in real sense, the systems are to be blamed. This is a clear example of an over-trust in ergonomics. A case of ergonomics mistrust has also been evidenced in the past. For instance, in an American prison, administrators installed motion sensors to trigger an alarm if a prisoner tried to escape. Within the first month of installation, the motion sensors went off all the time because it was triggered by wind motions and flying animals. This prompted the officers to start ignoring the s ensors. One inmate took advantage of the officers’ attitudes and managed to climb off the prison walls into freedom. The Importance of cognitive ergonomics can therefore not be underestimated because in the above scenario, if the same situation was observed in systems, such as fire alarms, the consequences would be disastrous and adverse. Cognitive ergonomics is therefore crucial in the society because almost everything is controlled by systems. This study however focuses on a case of establishing cognitive ergonomic issues of the Toyota Pruis model to establish strategies that can be used to improve the same. Since this study is focused on the cognitive ergonomic issues of the Toyota Prius model, emphasis will be made on the vehicle’s controls. To do so, a brief description of the product will be made in the first part of this paper, and secondly, ergonomic principles will be applied to the product to constitute the second part of the paper. In subsequent sections of the study, the ergonomic principles identified will be used to identify how best to redesign the car’s system controls. Finally, a summary of the study will be contained in the conclusion segment of the paper. Product The Toyota Prius model plays a significant role in the evolution of the global automotive industry because the model is a â€Å"green† car and so far, it has had immense success in the global automotive market (Green Car Congress 2011, p. 1). In California, the Toyota Prius model was rated one of the cleanest vehicles in America because it is run on a hybrid power engine (Green Car Congress 2011, p. 1). The Toyota hybrid car was first launched in Japan (in the year 1997), and since the year 2001, when it was launched in other markets across the globe, the car has been received very well by the consumers (Product Team 2011). So far, Toyota Prius model has been launched in more than 70 markets across the globe but its highest success has been witnessed in A sian markets and Northern Europe.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Cognitive Ergonomics specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In 2008, the model was rated one of the highest selling vehicles across the globe because vehicle sales reached the one million mark in the same year (Green Car Congress 2011, p. 1). Two years after that, the company attained the two million vehicles sales mark (Abuelsamid 2011). Since the Toyota Pius model has received great sales across major world markets, there has been increased interest about the vehicles ergonomics especially regarding the vehicles safety. Seeking a vehicle with the right type of cognitive ergonomic safety controls is not a simple task for people willing to find the right type of car for their convenience. Having the right car with the right cognitive ergonomic control is however very important in today’s society because many people spend most of their time driving (w hen compared to the past). Vehicle safety is an important part of cognitive ergonomics because safety is an essential determinant of vehicle sales. In other words, consumers are becoming increasingly aware about the need to buy vehicles which have a high safety standard. This standard can be determined by a vehicle’s safety controls. The Toyota Prius model is special in this regard because the car is fitted with power seats, automatic headlights, automatic climate control features and selective parking lights, all which add to the vehicle’s cognitive ergonomic features (Silverman 2011, p. 1). The selection and design of a right ergonomic car is often important in the automotive industry because many individuals seek products which are safe and easy to use (Dainoff 2007, p. 19). The market has a variety of ergonomic cars, but it would be misleading for anyone to buy a car, simply because it is deemed â€Å"ergonomic†. In this context, it is important to note that , ergonomic cars are designed to suit a variety of clients, but the variety is evidence enough that not everybody will find ergonomic cars appropriate for their use. For instance, some cars are designed to suit people of different genders, disabled people and the likes. Moreover, not all ergonomic cars blend well with a market’s environment, or even how a given terrain is perceived.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The right selection of an ergonomic car is therefore a tricky affair (but yet a simple one) because the right ergonomic car is only obtained when it suits the user’s purpose and safety requirements (Reilly 2007, p. 12). Moreover, the right ergonomic car should also suit the user’s task. From this analysis, it is important to understand that, the right ergonomic car can be obtained, although the process may be cumbersome. Application of Ergonomic Principles Recent cognitive ergonomic trends in the automotive industry incline towards developing cars with a high ease of use and a strong sense of automation (Silverman 2011, p. 1). Disabled drivers using the Toyota Prius model have benefitted a lot from the focus on ease of use and automation. For instance, in the Toyota Prius model, the automatic temperature feature has been cited as a major feature in the user control panel because users only have to set the temperature right (at 22 degrees Celsius) and the car does the r est, (in ensuring safety concerns are upheld) (Silverman 2011, p. 1). However, the Toyota Prius model falls short of accommodating all its customer subgroups. The car’s ease of reading control instructions is especially wanting, when it is perceived in the context of elderly drivers using the car. The text sizes in the car’s controls are small, and elderly drivers may find it difficult to read the small print when driving. Not only do elderly drivers find the readability of the texts difficult, other drivers may find it difficult to read the text too because when driving, a lot of attention is focused on the wheel as opposed to reading texts on the car’s dashboard. Since the readability of the user interface is wanting, drivers waste a lot of time trying to understand the commands on the car’s dashboard. This technical fault may be dreadful when driving because drivers are likely to cause an accident if their attention is shifted from the road. The positi on of the Prius model steering wheel is also placed in a wrong position which inhibits the visibility of the vehicles controls. Moreover, the high steering position is a barrier to good visibility when driving. Experts note that, this poor steering position obstructs the driver’s view of blind spots and may subsequently cause accidents (Silverman 2011, p. 1). The control panel of the Toyota Prius model is also a victim of poor lighting which hampers the visibility of texts in the control dashboard. The lighting is deemed too dim by most drivers and therefore, they have to strain to understand what is written in the control panel. People with poor visibility are therefore likely to find the readability of the texts on the control panel very poor. This may cause an accident or engine failure if there is a communication breakdown between the car’s system and the driver. On another negative front, the Prius model is criticized for lacking an adjustable seat height that fac ilitates easy visibility of the road. Other cars which lack this feature are criticized for poor visibility of the road because they fail to factor the average distance of driver visibility, between the driver’s eye level and the dashboard (Silverman 2011, p. 1). This distance always varies because the height of the driver seat fails to allow the driver to have the maximum visibility of the road. This feature is more serious for short drivers because they do not have the ability to see the road at all. Cars which do not allow for easy adjustability of the driver seat hinder the driver’s ability to have a maximum view of the road. The Toyota Prius model has however shown some positive cognitive ergonomic attributes in the development of its recent models. This observation is based on the fact that, recent models have been designed with a hands-free device to enable drivers to communicate without deviating their attention from driving. This control device was recommended for integration into the car’s user interface after it was affirmed that, driver attention was consistently lost with the absence of a hands-free device in most cars (Silverman 2011, p. 1). The Prius model was therefore designed to include this feature and it has proved beneficial to most users who want to communicate over the phone without putting their lives at risk by using a handheld mobile. Moreover, this feature has made the compliance to new automotive legislation in the automotive sector very easy. Most automotive manufactures are nowadays required to integrate hands-free mobile features in their cars, to reduce chances of vehicle accidents caused by the use of handheld mobile phones (Silverman 2011, p. 1). This is a positive cognitive ergonomic feature for the Toyota Prius model. Recommendations To rectify the small font size hindering the readability of the user interface, it is crucial to redesign the user interface of the vehicle control system to accommodate lar ge texts. Large fonts should therefore be used to improve user readability and improve the overall understandability of the information conveyed (Sedlack 2011, p. 1). Achieving this objective may involve changing the entire control software or accommodating a user interface where drivers can change the size of the fonts, depending on their readability level. For instance, the elderly may have the opportunity to increase the size of the fonts, while young drivers may find that reducing the size of the fonts is effective. Regardless of the variables, the drivers would be in a position to adjust the font’s size to suit their reading capabilities. To correct the poor seat height that hinders the drivers’ visibility of the road, users or buyers of ergonomic cars should be able to identify certain common features of any good driver ergonomic seat. These features identify the benchmarked factors to be considered before selecting the right ergonomic car. Also, these benchmark features should be useful to all drivers, regardless of their purpose of car use. The first benchmark feature is adjustability. Adjustability is crucial in cognitive car ergonomics, especially in defining the right seat height to be set by the driver because at times, it is difficult for automotive companies to design seats which are suitable for all heights (International Labour Office 1996, p. 138). However, adjustability should also be evidenced in other features of the seat to enable the driver have maximum visibility of the road. The depth of the seat is also important in the selection of the right ergonomic seat because the right ergonomic seat should be suitable for tall and short drivers. The last benchmark feature is stability. Stability is important for the drivers’ comfort because unstable seats are known to be frustrating and possibly dangerous to drivers. Stability is crucial because it sustains driver concentration on the road. The standard base should be at lea st five-points (Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety 2005). To rectify the poor brightness hindering the visibility of the driver interface panel, it is important for the interface designers to integrate a lighting control system that is able to adjust the brightness of the texts (or its background), depending on the lighting environment in the car. When it is too bright, the texts should be brighter to make the texts more visible and when it is darker, the texts should still be bright to enable the users to easily read the controls. To rectify the poor steering position hindering the visibility of the driver’s view, it is crucial to observe an important ergonomic feature in the automotive industry which dictates that, the driver needs to have enough space between the steering wheel and the legs (Silverman 2011, p. 1). The same distance should be maintained between the control dashboard and the steering wheel for easy visibility. This adjustment ensures drivers have the maximum view of the road and vehicle controls. It also ensures that drivers are in a good position to control the vehicle and comprehend the engine’s attributes from the control system. Conclusion Designing the best cognitive ergonomic controls for the Toyota Prius model is a matter of precision. However, the user’s preference is at the centre of the design process because this study establishes that, not all ergonomic cars are suitable for use in all environments. Moreover, not all aspects of a car’s ergonomic controls can be designed for everyone. This is the main motivation for categorizing drivers into different profiles with different needs. For instance, this paper categorizes the drivers into disabled or elderly drivers. From this understanding, it is crucial for the designers of the Prius model to consider the cognitive ergonomic needs of the users. This should especially be observed during the design of the car’s user interface because i t influences important issues on car performance, such as safety. However, considering the fact that, not all cars can be designed for everyone, this paper establishes several benchmarks, in terms of recommendations that should be factored at the design stage in the manufacture of the Toyota Prius model. From this understanding, this paper advocates for a strong focus on the interface font size, interface text brightness, driver steering position and the driver’s seat height and depth. In making most users comfortable, it is crucial to ensure the fonts and brightness of the texts in the user interface board of the car is easily adjustable to ensure all drivers comprehend information conveyed in the user control board. It is also crucial for the steering position to be placed in a manner that allows for the full view of the road and the user interface on the vehicle’s dashboard. The seat height should also be positioned in the same manner so that drivers can have a maxi mum view of the road. The recommendations provided in this study should be the default standards to be used in the automotive industry. For instance, if the adjustable features are installed in the user interface, many users would find the Toyota Prius model appropriate for their use. References Abuelsamid, S. (2011) Toyota Tops 2 Million Hybrid Sales Worldwide (Online) Available at: http://green.autoblog.com/2009/09/04/toyota-tops-2-million-hybrid-sales-worldwide/ . Budnick, P. (2001) What is Cognitive Ergonomics? (Online) Available at: ergoweb.com/news/detail.cfm?id=352 . Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. (2005) Ergonomic Chair (Online) Available at: ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/office/chair.html . Cohen, A. (1997) Elements of Ergonomics Programs: A Primer Based On Workplace  Evaluations of Musculoskeletal Disorders. New York, DIANE Publishing. Dainoff, M. (2007) Ergonomics and health aspects of work with computers: international  conference, EHAWC 2007, he ld as part of HCI International 2007, Beijing, China, July 22-27: proceedings. New York, Springer. Green Car Congress. (2011) Worldwide Prius Cumulative Sales Top 2M Mark; Toyota  Reportedly Plans Two New Prius Variants for the US By End of 2012 (Online) Available at: greencarcongress.com/2010/10/worldwide-prius-cumulative-sales-top-2m-mark-toyota-reportedly-plans-two-new-prius-variants-for-the-.html#more 2010-10-07. International Labour Office. (1996) Ergonomic Checkpoints: Practical and Easy-To-  Implement Solutions For Improving Safety, Health And Working Conditions. New York, International Labour Organization. Moray, N. (2005) Ergonomics: Major Writings. London, Routledge. Product Team. (2011) 2008 Toyota Prius (Online) Available at: hybridcar.com/index.php?option=com_contenttask=viewid=521Itemid=103 . Reilly, M. (2007) An Ergonomics Guide to Computer Workstations. New York, AIHA. Robertson, S. (1995) Contemporary Ergonomics. London, Taylor Francis. Sedlack, W. (2011) The I mportance of Readability in Good Website Design (Online) Available at: http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Importance-of-Readability-in-Good-Website-Designid=2591054 . Shahbazian, E. (2008) Harbour Protection through Data Fusion Technologies. New York, Springer. Silverman, J. (2011) How Car Ergonomics Work (Online) Available at: http://auto.howstuffworks.com/under-the-hood/trends-innovations/car-ergonomics2.htm . Talty, J. (1988) Industrial Hygiene Engineering: Recognition, Measurement, Evaluation,  And Control. New York, William Andrew.

World War II Turning Points in the Pacific

World War II Turning Points in the Pacific Following the attack on Pearl Harbor and other Allied possessions around the Pacific, Japan swiftly moved to expand its empire. In Malaya, Japanese forces under General Tomoyuki Yamashita executed a lightning campaign down the peninsula, forcing superior British forces to retreat to Singapore. Landing on the island on February 8, 1942, Japanese troops compelled General Arthur Percival to surrender six days later. With the fall of Singapore, 80,000 British and Indian troops were captured, joining the 50,000 taken earlier in the campaign (Map). In the Netherlands East Indies, Allied naval forces attempted make a stand at the Battle of the Java Sea on February 27. In the main battle and in actions over the next two days, the Allies lost five cruisers and five destroyers, effectively ending their naval presence in the region. Following the victory, Japanese forces occupied the islands, seizing their rich supplies of oil and rubber (Map). Invasion of the Philippines To the north, on the island of Luzon in the Philippines, the Japanese, who had landed in December 1941, drove US and Filipino forces, under General Douglas MacArthur, back to the Bataan Peninsula and captured Manila. In early January, the Japanese began attacking the Allied line across Bataan. Though stubbornly defending the peninsula and inflicting heavy casualties, US and Filipino forces were slowly pushed back and supplies and ammunition began to dwindle (Map). Battle of Bataan With the US position in the Pacific crumbling, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered MacArthur to leave his headquarters on the fortress island of Corregidor and relocate to Australia. Departing on March 12, MacArthur turned over command of the Philippines to General Jonathan Wainwright. Arriving in Australia, MacArthur made a famous radio broadcast to the people of the Philippines in which he promised I Shall Return. On April 3, the Japanese launched a major offensive against the Allied lines on Bataan. Trapped and with his lines shattered, Major General Edward P. King surrendered his remaining 75,000 men to the Japanese on April 9. These prisoners endured the Bataan Death March which saw approximately 20,000 die (or in some cases escape) en route to POW camps elsewhere on Luzon. Fall of the Philippines With Bataan secure, the Japanese commander, Lieutenant General Masaharu Homma, focused his attention on the remaining US forces on Corregidor. A small fortress island in Manila Bay, Corregidor served as the Allied headquarters in the Philippines. Japanese troops landed on the island on the night of May 5/6 and met fierce resistance. Establishing a beachhead, they were quickly reinforced and pushed the American defenders back. Later that day Wainwright asked Homma for terms and by May 8 the surrender of the Philippines was complete. Though a defeat, the valiant defense of Bataan and Corregidor bought valuable time for Allied forces in the Pacific to regroup. Bombers from Shangri-La In an effort to boost public morale, Roosevelt authorized a daring raid on the home islands of Japan. Conceived by Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle and Navy Captain Francis Low, the plan called for the raiders to fly B-25 Mitchell medium bombers from the aircraft carrier USS Hornet (CV-8), bomb their targets, and then continue on to friendly bases in China. Unfortunately on April 18, 1942, Hornet was sighted by a Japanese picket boat, forcing Doolittle to launch 170 miles from the intended take-off point. As a result, the planes lacked the fuel to reach their bases in China, forcing the crews to bail out or crash their aircraft. While the damage inflicted was minimal, the raid achieved the desired morale boost. Also, it stunned the Japanese, who had believed the home islands to be invulnerable to attack. As a result, several fighter units were recalled for defensive use, preventing them from fighting at the front. When asked where the bombers took off from, Roosevelt stated that They came from our secret base at Shangri-La. The Battle of the Coral Sea With the Philippines secured, the Japanese sought to complete their conquest of New Guinea by capturing Port Moresby. In doing so they hoped to bring the US Pacific Fleets aircraft carriers into battle so that they could be destroyed. Alerted to the impending threat by decoded Japanese radio intercepts, the Commander-in-Chief of the US Pacific Fleet, Admiral Chester Nimitz, dispatched the carriers USS Yorktown (CV-5) and USS Lexington (CV-2) to the Coral Sea to intercept the invasion force. Led by Rear Admiral Frank J. Fletcher, this force was soon to encounter Admiral Takeo Takagis covering force consisting of the carriers Shokaku and Zuikaku, as well as the light carrier Shoho (Map). On May 4, Yorktown launched three strikes against the Japanese seaplane base at Tulagi, crippling its reconnaissance capabilities and sinking a destroyer. Two days later, land-based B-17 bombers spotted and unsuccessfully attacked the Japanese invasion fleet. Later that day, both carrier forces began actively searching for each other. On May 7, both fleets launched all of their aircraft, and succeeded in finding and attacking secondary units of the enemy. The Japanese heavily damaged the oiler Neosho and sunk the destroyer USS Sims. American aircraft located and sunk Shoho. Fighting resumed on May 8, with both fleets launching massive strikes against the other. Dropping out of the sky, US pilots hit Shokaku with three bombs, setting it on fire and putting it out of action. Meanwhile, the Japanese attacked Lexington, hitting it with bombs and torpedoes. Though stricken, Lexingtons crew had the ship stabilized until fire reached an aviation fuel storage area causing a massive explosion. The ship was soon abandoned and sunk to prevent capture. Yorktown was also damaged in the attack. With Shoho sunk and Shokaku badly damaged, Takagi decided to retreat, ending the threat of invasion. A strategic victory for the Allies, the Battle of the Coral Sea was the first naval battle fought entirely with aircraft. Yamamotos Plan Following the Battle of Coral Sea, the commander of the Japanese Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, devised a plan to draw the remaining ships of the US Pacific Fleet into a battle where they could be destroyed. To do this, he planned to invade the island of Midway, 1,300 miles northwest of Hawaii. Critical to Pearl Harbors defense, Yamamoto knew the Americans would send their remaining carriers to protect the island. Believing the US to only have two carriers operational, he sailed with four, plus a large fleet of battleships and cruisers. Through the efforts of US Navy cryptanalysts, who had broken the Japanese JN-25 naval code, Nimitz was aware of the Japanese plan and dispatched the carriers USS Enterprise (CV-6) and USS Hornet, under Rear Admiral Raymond Spruance, as well as the hastily repaired Yorktown, under Fletcher, to the waters north of Midway to intercept the Japanese. The Tide Turns: The Battle of Midway At 4:30 AM on June 4, the commander of the Japanese carrier force, Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, launched a series of strikes against Midway Island. Overwhelming the islands small air force, the Japanese pounded the American base. While returning to the carriers, Nagumos pilots recommended a second strike on the island. This prompted Nagumo to order his reserve aircraft, which had been armed with torpedoes, to be rearmed with bombs. As this process was underway, one of his scout planes reported locating the US carriers. Hearing this, Nagumo reversed his rearmament command in order to attack the ships. As the torpedoes were being put back on Nagumos aircraft, American planes appeared over his fleet. Using reports from their own scout planes, Fletcher and Spruance began launching aircraft around 7:00 AM. The first squadrons to reach the Japanese were the TBD Devastator torpedo bombers from Hornet and Enterprise. Attacking at low level, they did not score a hit and suffered heavy casualties. Though unsuccessful, the torpedo planes pulled down the Japanese fighter cover, which cleared the way for the American SBD Dauntless dive bombers. Striking at 10:22, they scored multiple hits, sinking the carriers Akagi, Soryu, and Kaga. In response, the remaining Japanese carrier, Hiryu, launched a counterstrike that twice disabled Yorktown. That afternoon, US dive bombers returned and sunk Hiryu to seal the victory. His carriers lost, Yamamoto abandoned the operation. Disabled, Yorktown was taken under tow, but was sunk by the submarine I-168 en route to Pearl Harbor. To the Solomons With the Japanese thrust in the central Pacific blocked, the Allies devised a plan to prevent the enemy from occupying the southern Solomon Islands and using them as bases for attacking Allied supply lines to Australia. To accomplish this goal, it was decided to land on the small islands of Tulagi, Gavutu, and Tamambogo, as well as on Guadalcanal where the Japanese were building an airfield. Securing these islands would also be the first step towards isolating the main Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain. The task of securing the islands largely fell to the 1st Marine Division led by Major General Alexander A. Vandegrift. The Marines would be supported at sea by a task force centered on the carrier USS Saratoga (CV-3), led by Fletcher, and an amphibious transport force commanded by Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner. Landing at Guadalcanal On August 7, the Marines landed on all four islands. They met fierce resistance on Tulagi, Gavutu, and Tamambogo, but were able to overwhelm the 886 defenders who fought to the last man. On Guadalcanal, the landings went largely unopposed with 11,000 Marines coming ashore. Pressing inland, they secured the airfield the next day, renaming it Henderson Field. On August 7 and 8, Japanese aircraft from Rabaul attacked the landing operations (Map). These attacks were beaten off by aircraft from Saratoga. Due to low fuel and concerned about further loss of aircraft, Fletcher decided to withdraw his task force on the night of the 8th. With his air cover removed, Turner had no choice but follow, despite the fact that less than half of the Marines equipment and supplies had been landed. That night the situation worsened when Japanese surface forces defeated and sank four Allied (3 US, 1 Australian) cruisers at the Battle of Savo Island. The Fight for Guadalcanal After consolidating their position, the Marines completed Henderson Field and established a defensive perimeter around their beachhead. On August 20, the first aircraft arrived flying in from the escort carrier USS Long Island. Dubbed the Cactus Air Force, the aircraft at Henderson would prove vital in the coming campaign. In Rabaul, Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake was tasked with retaking the island from the Americans and Japanese ground forces were routed to Guadalcanal, with Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi taking command at the front. Soon the Japanese were launching probing attacks against the Marines lines. With the Japanese bringing reinforcements to the area, the two fleets met at the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on August 24-25. An American victory, the Japanese lost the light carrier Ryujo and were unable to bring their transports to Guadalcanal. On Guadalcanal, Vandegrifts Marines worked on strengthening their defenses and benefited from the arrival of additional supplies. Overhead, the aircraft of the Cactus Air Force flew daily to defend the field from Japanese bombers. Prevented from bringing transports to Guadalcanal, the Japanese began delivering troops at night using destroyers. Dubbed the Tokyo Express, this approach worked, but deprived the soldiers of all their heavy equipment. Beginning on September 7, the Japanese began attacking the Marines position in earnest. Ravaged by disease and hunger, the Marines heroically repulsed every Japanese assault. Fighting Continues Reinforced in mid-September, Vandegrift expanded and completed his defenses. Over the next several weeks, the Japanese and Marines battled back and forth, with neither side gaining an advantage. On the night of October 11/12, US ships under, Rear Admiral Norman Scott defeated the Japanese in the Battle of Cape Esperance, sinking a cruiser and three destroyers. The fighting covered the landing of US Army troops on the island and prevented reinforcements from reaching the Japanese. Two nights later, the Japanese dispatched a squadron centered on the battleships Kongo and Haruna, to cover transports heading to Guadalcanal and to bombard Henderson Field. Opening fire at 1:33 AM, the battleships struck the airfield for nearly an hour and half, destroying 48 aircraft and killing 41. On the 15th, the Cactus Air Force attacked the Japanese convoy as it unloaded, sinking three cargo ships. Guadalcanal Secured Beginning on October 23, Kawaguchi launched a major offensive against Henderson Field from the south. Two nights later, they nearly broke through Marines line, but were repulsed by Allied reserves. As the fighting was raging around Henderson Field, the fleets collided at the Battle of Santa Cruz on October 25-27. Though a tactical victory for the Japanese, having sunk Hornet, they suffered high losses among their air crews and were forced to retreat. The tide on Guadalcanal finally turned in the Allies favor following the naval Battle of Guadalcanal on November 12-15. In a series of aerial and naval engagements, US forces sank two battleships, a cruiser, three destroyers, and eleven transports in exchange for two cruisers and seven destroyers. The battle gave the Allies naval superiority in the waters around Guadalcanal, allowing for massive reinforcements to land and the beginning of offensive operations. In December, the battered 1st Marine Division was withdrawn and replaced by XIV Corps. Attacking the Japanese on January 10, 1943, XIV Corps forced the enemy to evacuate the island by February 8. The six month campaign to take the island was one of the longest of the Pacific war and was the first step in pushing back the Japanese.